HOUSING STANDARDISATION
The Architecture of Regulations and Design Standards

This research project focuses on subsidised housing – social, public, and affordable housing supported by direct or indirect subsidy, rented or sold below market rates, and allocated based on social, economic or political criteria. Subsidised housing is typically built at scale and low cost, often relying on standardised and repeatable design solutions.

The project studies the design, quality, regulation, and lived experiences of subsidised housing in six countries and cities: England (London), Chile (Santiago), China (Shenzhen), the Netherlands (Amsterdam), Spain (Barcelona), and Switzerland (Zurich), which represent a variety of housing provision systems and standards.

These six countries have distinct subsidised housing provision systems that determine not only how housing is supplied, managed, and accessed but also the quantity, type, affordability, and quality of housing. Housing systems can be defined by housing providers, tenures, target groups, and financing (subsidies). 

CountryProviderFinancingForm of tenureTarget Group
England

Local authorities

Housing associations

Government subsidies,

Cross-subsisidies,

Planning obligations

Social-rentedSocially and economically disadvantaged
Affordable-rentedLow- to mid-income households
Shared ownershipMid-income households
ChilePrivate housebuildersGovernment subsidiesSubsidised homeownershipLow-income households
Mid-income households
ChinaRegional authorities' subsidiary companiesGovernment subsidiesPublic rental housing

Low-middle-income households

with urban household registration and housing difficulties.

Affordable rental housingQualified new citizens,
young people,
and some high-skilled workers.
Housing for talent workersHigh-skilled professionals
Shared homeownershipMiddle-income households
NetherlandsHousing corporations

Cross-subsidies,

land subsidies,

planning obligations

Social rented 
Intermediate rented 
SpainArms length municipal organisations

Cost-sale,

cross-subsidies

Protected housingMid-income households
SwitzerlandCooperatives

Cost-rent,

government-backed credits,

land subsidies

Cooperative housing 

These systems are context-specific, shaped by historical contingencies, regulatory practices, and housing supply and costs, and reflect socio-political agendas, such as welfare, social mobility, economic growth, and urban development. 

 Tenure distributionHousing characteristics (average)AffordabilityHousing supply
 Owner occupied
(outright ownership)
Private rentAffordable/social rentHouse
Flat
Dwelling size 
(affordable/social)
Household sizeRooms-per-personSpace-per-person
(affordable/social)
Building ageHouse-price-to-income ratioExpenditure-to-income ratioAverage social-to-private rentHousing target, annualNew total supplyAffordable supply 
(ownership)
England65%
(35%)
19%16%79%
21%
97m²
(67m²)
2.21244m²
(30m²)
72%
(<1980)
8.332%43%300,000
[2024-29]
212,570
[2022-23]
27%
(32%)
[2022-23] 
London48%
(24%)
31%21%      16     
Chile57%26%0.10%79.5%
17.5%
66m22.81.91838.2%
(<1991)
15.627%5265,000
[2024]
36,000
[2022]
16%
(100%)
[2022]
Santiago53%33.80% 67.3%
30.1%
 2.9  38.8%
(<1991)
18.728%    
China81%12%2% 111m²
(<70m2)
2.81.242m23%34.6--2,800,000
(public rental)
[2021-25]
~7,968,800 
[2022]
8%
[2010-20]
Shenzhen 77%  72  30 40.1  600,000
(subsidised rental)
[2021-25]
  
Netherlands57%13%28%80
18
120m²2.12.15362%7.226%52~100,00073,000
[2023]
7,200
(10%)
[2023-24]
Amsterdam30%30%40% 77m²  4065%10.3     
Spain75%15%3%34
66
94m²2.5243m2557.843%-55,750
[2023-27]
447,691
[2023]
8847
20
[2023]
Barcelona69%24%2% 78m²2.3  63%10.7     
Switzerland36%58%4%
(cooperative)
34
63
99m²
(78m2)
2.21.847m2
(36m2)
609.722%86%-46,505~2,000
[2022]
Zurich8%65%27%
(cooperative)
 97    11.2