HOUSING STANDARDISATION
The Architecture of Regulations and Design Standards

This research studies affordable housing design outcomes in six contexts: England, Chile, China, Netherlands, Spain and Switzerland. Here, affordable housing is broadly defined as housing that is rented or sold below market rates. This often necessitates some form of subsidy, but, as the individual country pages explain, these are not always government-backed subsidies.  

The six contexts analysed have distinct affordable housing provision systems in place. These systems can be classified by the types of providers, forms of tenure, target groups, and financing.

Country   Provider   Financing   Form of tenure   Target Group
England   Local authorities and housing associations   Government subsidies,
cross-subsisidies, and
planning obligations
  Social-rented   Socially and economically disadvantaged
      Affordable-rented   Low- to mid-income households
      Shared ownership   Mid-income households
Chile   Private housebuilders   Government subsidies   Subsidised homeownership   Low-income households
        Mid-income households
China   Regional authorities
and subsidiary companies
  Government subsidies   Public rental housing   Low-middle-income households
with urban household registration
and housing difficulties.
      Affordable rental housing   Qualified new citizens,
young people,
and some high-skilled workers.
      Housing for talent workers   High-skilled professionals
      Shared homeownership   Middle-income households
Netherlands   Housing corporations  

Market (cross-subsidies),

land subsidies and planning obligations

  Social rented    
      Intermediate rented    
Spain   Arms length municipal organisations   Cost-sale
Market (cross-subsidies)
  Protected housing   Mid-income households
Switzerland   Cooperatives   Cost-rent,
government-backed credits,
land subsidies
  Cooperative housing    

Affordable housing systems reflect socio-political agendas such as those related to welfare, social change and mobility, economic growth and urban development. At the same time, they are influenced by factors such as historical contingencies, regulatory cultures and instruments, and housing supply and cost. Such factors also influence the design outcomes, which are directly governed by the regulations, technical standards and guidelines that form part of these systems. 

CountriesEngland Chile China Netherlands Spain Switzerland
Tenure Distribution and Affordability           
 Homeownership           
  % of stock65% 57% 74% 57% 75% 36%
  House price to 
income ratio
8.3 16.4 29.4 7.7 8.3 10.4
 Private rental           
  % of stock19% 26.50% 18% 14% 15% 58%
  Rent to income ratio32% 27% - 26% 43% 22%
 Social rent / cooperatives           
  % of stock16% 0% 3% 28% 3% 3%
  Avg social to 
private rent
43% - - 52% - 86%
              
Housing Stock Characteristics           
 Avg dwelling size97m² 66m² 109m² 120m² 107m² 99m²
 Avg household size2.2 2.8 2.6 2.1 2.5 2.1
 Built before 198072% 37% 3% 62% 55% 60%
              
Housing Delivery*           
 Target300,000
(annual)
 65,000 - 100,000 - -
 Total supply212,570 36,000 100,717,000 74,560 447,691 46,505
 Affordable supply27% 15.60% 8% 10% 20% 4%
* Figures are given for 2022-23 in England, 2022 in Chile and Switzerland, 2010-20 in China, and 2023-24 in the Netherlands.